Nucleic Acids - Function, Examples, and Monomers

Nucleic Acids s, and Monomers Nucleic acids are molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. These macromolecules store the genetic information that determines traits and makes protein synthesis possible. Key Takeaways: Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production.Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides.Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).RNA has ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and uracil (U). Two examples of nucleic acids include: deoxyribonucleic acid (better known as DNA) and ribonucleic acid (better known as RNA). These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides held together by covalent bonds. Nucleic acids can be found within the nucleus and cytoplasm of our cells. Nucleic Acid Monomers Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. OpenStax/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers linked together. Nucleotides have three parts: A Nitrogenous BaseA Five-Carbon (Pentose) SugarA Phosphate Group Nitrogenous bases include purine molecules (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidine molecules (cytosine, thymine, and uracil). In DNA, the five-carbon sugar is deoxyribose, while ribose is the pentose sugar in RNA. Nucleotides are linked together to form polynucleotide chains. They are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the phosphate of one and the sugar of another. These linkages are called phosphodiester linkages. Phosphodiester linkages form the sugar-phosphate backbone of both DNA and RNA. Similar to what happens with protein and carbohydrate monomers, nucleotides are linked together through dehydration synthesis. In nucleic acid dehydration synthesis, nitrogenous bases are joined together and a water molecule is lost in the process. Interestingly, some nucleotides perform important cellular functions as individual molecules, the most common example being ATP. DNA Structure DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). OpenStax/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 DNA is the cellular molecule that contains instructions for the performance of all cell functions. When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation. DNA is organized into chromosomes and found within the nucleus of our cells. It contains the programmatic instructions for cellular activities. When organisms produce offspring, these instructions in are passed down through DNA. DNA commonly exists as a double stranded molecule with a twisted double helix shape. DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In double stranded DNA, adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C). RNA Structure RNA is composed of a phosphate-ribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U). Sponk/Wikimedia Commons RNA is essential for the synthesis of proteins. Information contained within the genetic code is typically passed from DNA to RNA to the resulting proteins. There are several different types of RNA. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the RNA transcript or RNA copy of the DNA message produced during DNA transcription. Messenger RNA is translated to form proteins.Transfer RNA (tRNA) has a three dimensional shape and is necessary for the translation of mRNA in protein synthesis.Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of ribosomes and is also involved in protein synthesis.MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that help to regulate gene expression. RNA most commonly exists as a single stranded molecule composed of a phosphate-ribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U). When DNA is transcribed into an  RNA transcript during DNA transcription, guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C) and adenine pairs with uracil (A-U). Differences Between DNA and RNA Composition This image shows a comparison of a single-stranded RNA molecule and a double-stranded DNA molecule. Sponk/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA differ in composition and structure. The differences are listed as follows: DNA Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and ThymineFive-Carbon Sugar: DeoxyriboseStructure: Double-stranded DNA is commonly found in its three dimensional, double helix shape. This twisted structure makes it possible for DNA to unwind for DNA replication and protein synthesis. RNA Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and UracilFive-Carbon Sugar: RiboseStructure: Single-stranded While RNA does not take on a double helix shape like DNA, this molecule is able to form complex three dimensional shapes. This is possible because RNA bases form complementary pairs with other bases on the same RNA strand. The base pairing causes RNA to fold forming various shapes. More Macromolecules Biological Polymers: These are macromolecules formed from the joining together of small organic molecules.Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates include saccharides or sugars and their derivatives.Proteins: These macromolecules are formed from amino acid monomers.Lipids: Lipids are organic compounds that include fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.

Decision Marking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Decision Marking - Essay Example The issue will first be illustrated, and then it will be necessary to identify the importance of decision making process for the company; the major part of the work will e devoted to the detailed structured analysis of the issue and application of the soft system technology to it. Conclusion will summarize the acquired information and will make it possible to define the best solutions. Last year more than 50% of total passenger traffic was generated within North America and Europe, with Japan accounting for an additional 4% from domestic or international flights. These three regions equate to more than 70% ($US400 billion) of airline revenues. However the picture will change dramatically in the next five years, due mainly to the emergence of China and India as economic superpowers set to capture about 15% of expected growth in global traffic. It is clearly seen, that the issue to be discussed in the present work is how to keep the existing market share in the global traffic and how to attract additional customers to the area of the North American and European airlines, so that with the emergence of China and India as new super powerful economic states these market shares should not be threatened to minimize. It is obvious, that possessing significant market share in global traffic and especially airline needs constant attention and decision-making, because the thr eat of India and China occupying its considerable part is based on objective reasons and grounds. However, on the other hand, these assumptions may underlie another aspect - tending to stability and knowing the quality of the services provided by European and North American airlines many customers would not be willing to change the supplier of these services, that is, the airline company they usually use for traveling on business or entertainment. Background The starting point for any aircraft demand analysis is clear understanding of the issues driving air transport and the way in which they relate to the future air traffic and aircraft capacity. Airbus' traffic forecast process is based on four major building blocks, and it should be noted that these building blocks are also important to be known in the present decision-making process. These are Brand, Emerging Markets, Human Assets and Technology. The two aspects which will be taken for analysis here are Brand and Technology. It will be essential to see how these two aspects of the airline business should be involved into keeping the present market share and what decisions should be made in relation to these two aspects to make them work for the benefit of the leading world airline companies. These will be taken as the two major issues or challenges to be faced by the companies in the nearest future and thus appropriate decision-making techniques should be chosen. (Isenberg 1996, p. 7 78) It is stated, that airlines based in Middle East and Asia are expected to develop more quickly than airlines based in other regions, growing by an average of 6.4% and 6.2% respectively. This is fuelled by the aspiration of airlines and in some cases the countries themselves, as well as access to bourgeoning markets driven by liberalization and a growing propensity to travel. But for the companies which are

Business Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business Leadership - Essay Example DuBrin (2008) explained that a charismatic leader lead and influence others using personal charm, inspiration and emotion. This defines Herb Kelleher who was energetic, action oriented, visionary and inspiring. A number of leaders have emerged in the business realm to inspire and motivate employees in their organization to work hard and produce enviable results (Takougang 2004). True leaders are hard to come by because they are in short supply (Finkelstein et al 2007). Some of the outstanding leaders include; Jeff Bezoz, chief executive officer Amazon.co; Richard Branson, chief executive officer Virgin Group; Steven Jobs, chief executive officer Apple Computer; William Gates, who is chairman of Microsoft; and Herb Kelleher, chairman of Southwest Airlines among many others (Mockler 2002). The above leaders appeal to the hearts of their employees. Herb Kelleher is an outstanding leader who through years has demonstrated great abilities running Southwest Airlines. The success of Southwe st Airlines is largely attributed to exemplary leadership of Herb Kelleher. To understand who Herb Kelleher is, it is important to state part of his autobiography. Herb Kelleher Herb Kelleher who is a last born in the family of four, a husband to Joan Negley and father of four children was born on 12 March, 1931 to Harry Kelleher and Ruth Moore. He went to Haddon Heights High School and further proceeded to Wesleyan University for Bachelors of Arts degree in English literature and New York University for a Law degree. While he was a little boy, he spent six summers working at Campbell’s Soap factory where his father was a general manager. Kelleher worked as a warehouse foreman, soap chef and analyst. He became an associate of Lum, Biunno and Tompkins between 1959 and 1961. Between 1961 and 1969, Herb Kelleher was a partner at Nowlin, Macfarlane and Barrett. He became a senior partner of Oppenheimer, Rosenberg, Kelleher and Wheatley between 1971 and 1982. In addition, he worke d as a legal counsel for Southwest Airlines Company from 1966 to 1982. In the years that followed from 1982 to 2001, Herb Kelleher was appointed chairman, chief executive officer and president of Southwest Airlines Company. In 2001, he stepped down as chief executive officer and president of Southwest Airlines Company but retained his chairmanship. In 2007, Herb Kelleher steeped down as a chairman. He further resigned from board of directors of the company in 2008. However, he was to be an employee of the company for five years from 2008. This is because though he was advancing in age, his services were needed. Herb Kelleher was appointed chairman of Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas in 2010 for 2011-2013. Herb Kelleher is a distinguished leader who has been awarded for his exemplary leadership performance by chief executive, Texas monthly and Fortune. In addition, Franklin Institute awarded him Bower Award for Business Leadership in 2003 (Reference for Business). Herb Kelleher managem ent style Herb Kelleher leadership skills and style was acquired when he worked at soaps factory where he learned the value of hard work. Furthermore, his work ethics was shaped by his mother who developed a special bond with him. For example, he sat with his mother in the kitchen until wee hours of the morning discussing business, politics and ethics. His mother (Irish woman) instilled him with the importance of treating people with respect. His mother also taught him to be egalitarian and judge people on merit rather than

Why Projects Fail In Airbus-A380 In Singapore Airline Essay

Why Projects Fail In Airbus-A380 In Singapore Airline - Essay Example From this research it is clear that Airbus had high expectations regarding its most ambitious project of A380. It was a commercial aircraft, intended to guide in the new age of superjumbo airplane. It was also aimed to carry about 800 travellers and crewmembers. The problem with the project arrived during 2006 when the pre-assembled wiring, manufactured in Hamburg, Germany plant failed to be adjusted appropriately in the A380 aircraft frame. The wiring was designed by utilising old version of CATIA, an application commonly used in the aviation industry, where the body of A380 was manufactured by using upgraded version of similar application. Unfortunately, these versions were incompatible with each other and therefore, during the project lifecycle phase, the capability to share the design of aircraft between these two plants was conceded. As a consequence, considerable number of fabricated cabins developed could not be adjusted in the airplane. Hence, Airbus had no other option than halting the manufacturing work, delaying the deliveries of Aircrafts for two years and remodelling the wiring system. The expenses of the project failure exceeded about US$6 billion, positioning the program about two years behind the planned schedule. For any project to be successful, organisations must meet the delivery and production obligations made to its customers. However, Airbus was unable to fulfil its obligations towards the customers owing to the above stated problems causing the Airbus A380 project failure.

Role Models and Heroines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Role Models and Heroines - Essay Example She is able to objectively analyze her attitudes and preferences and she is not fanatic about anything and anyone. Though it is considered that each of us has his unique fate and we are not to keep to the beaten tracks of other people, young people do need some examples to orient at. The greatest artists had to copy earlier masters in order to develop their own styles. So it is quite normal first to choose role models in searching for your identity. As my friend has put it, this helps girls â€Å"to stay on the right track†, to set goals and have dreams, without which development is impossible. Thinking or reading about lives or career stories of her chosen heroines, my friend is encouraged and recharged to run into her goals just as they did† My friend chooses role models and heroines according to emerging spiritual and intellectual necessities of hers. Looking at young women, who have achieved something, my friend sees what traits of character must have helped them to succeed and she learns and develops those traits. This way she is able to set new goals at each stage of her life. In early teens my friend looked at pop-stars (as most of teenagers do). This way she acquired some notions of beauty and charm, she learnt the skills of communication, and had some naà ¯ve dreams (that develop artistic skills, on the other hand). Later she got impressed by Hillary, whose life and work served as inspiration. Today my friend wants to follow the example of her mom, the woman close to her, the one, who has succeeded in her work, but also managed to be a perfect wife and mother. Being a leader by her nature, my friend has always oriented at women who succeeded in their career and became leaders in their fields. These women are â⠂¬Å"dignified and beautiful, inside and outside.† Confidence, charisma and leader’s abilities caught my friend’s attention and she adopted ways of thinking and behaving from her role models. My

Rock and Roll vs Rap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Rock and Roll vs Rap - Essay Example Soon the American rock style began to influence other genres. Places like Southern California produced their own varieties of pop music, such as surf. Young adults and teenagers across the country were playing in amateur rock bands, laying the roots for local scenes which would pave the way for garage rock and the so-called San Francisco Sound. Rock has encountered several stages of development since the beginning of the 50s, and the tendencies in modern rock include alternative bands (Radiohead, Muse), so-called pop-rock (Blink-182, Green Day) and others (George-Warren 26). Rap music in its widely recognized form appeared much later than rock and roll. The roots of hip hop music are in West African and African American music. Originally, early rappers of the 70s focused on introducing themselves and others in the audience (the origin of the still common practice of "shouting out" on hip hop records). These early performers often emceed for hours at a time, with some improvisation and a simple four-count beat, along with a basic chorus to allow the performer to gather his thoughts (such as "one, two, three, y'all, to the beat, y'all"). The 1980s saw intense diversification in hip hop, which developed into a more complex form.

Judaism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Judaism - Essay Example Their story has played out over time until now when more and more people believe. Anyone born of a Jewish mother is considered a Jew. Jews believe that God appointed them to be his chosen people in order to be an example of holiness and ethical behavior to the whole world. They still hold this view up to date and it is not easy to convince them that all human beings stand an equal chance before God. Different religions have different views regarding different subjects such as marriage, children rights, and individual’s role in the society and at home. It is important to understand how a specific religion such as Judaism views and evaluates each of the roles and if there are special considerations. The central idea of Judaism is a commitment by the Jewish people to one (single) incorporeal God who is also omnipotent and is the creator and ruler of the universe as well as the source of moral law for humanity. The Jewish people believe in the Torah, which was the law given to the Israelites at Sinai. They believe they must follow Gods law which governs their daily life. Legal books were later written by Rabbis; determining the law as it applies to life in each new place and time (Tenakh).  They have several rituals such as the mitzvoth (observance of Torah), the observance of the 613 commandments, rabbinic law, keeping kosher, going to the synagogue where they hear the readings and their worship and prayer. It is like rituals define their religion give the importance they attach to different kind of rituals. Rituals define every aspect of Judaism and this approach is totally different from other religions which do not rely on any kind of ritual to establish an achievement, mos t religions rely on their teachings and the set doctrines that guide their followers. Judaism has applications and requirements of the believer that they are simply unable to meet in fullness. Their requirements limit many people around the globe from joining their faith